Colored Servants

In July 1897, Salt Lake City Utah was preparing for a gathering unlike any other that the state had seen before. The Brigham Young Memorial Association had been working to gather as many pioneers as possible for the fiftieth anniversary of the entrance of Brigham Young and his wagon train into the Great Basin. The Pioneer Jubilee, as it was called, took place over four days and included speeches, parades, and boasted the biggest firework show ever witnessed in the West.[1] The biggest attraction was the unveiling of the Pioneer Monument which had been under scrutiny for six years while the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints worked tirelessly to fund the project. The monument was draped in an American flag waiting to be unveiled on the opening day of the jubilee.

The crowd fell silent in awe as the flag was dropped and the thousands of people from around the region were able to gaze at the craftsmanship of the Brigham Young statue sculpted by Cyrus Dallin.[2] The monument was constructed of granite and was topped with the ten foot figure. On the front of the monument was a plaque which read: “In Honor of Brigham Young and the Pioneers.”[3] On the reverse side of the monument was another plaque that has garnered controversy since the 1970’s. This plaque lists all the names of the pioneers who first made the trek with Brigham Young in 1847. On the bottom right hand side of the plaque are the names Green Flake, Hark Lay, and Oscar Crosby delineated by a bracket inscribed “colored servants.”[4]

Mormon pioneers began traveling west in 1846. They were looking for a place where they could worship without the conflicts that they were enduring in Illinois, Missouri and previously Ohio and New York. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints had been persecuted for their beliefs since Joseph Smith had started the religion April 6, 1830. After the death of Joseph Smith, Brigham Young led a group of pioneers to Winter Quarters, Nebraska, and eventually to the Salt Lake Valley. The thousand-mile trek from the Midwest to the Utah territory was a difficult journey for the group and there were many hardships along the way. The party reached the Great Basin July 24, 1847 consisting of one hundred and forty-three men, three women, and two children.[5] However, on July 21, three days earlier, an advance party entered the Salt Lake Valley carrying three African American slaves who had been given to Brigham Young in Winter Quarters. These three slaves were Green Flake, Hark Lay, and Oscar Crosby.

Fifty years after the initial party of Mormon pioneers made it to the Great Basin, Cyrus E. Dallin constructed a monument honoring the man who led the group and the pioneers who had made the trek. Scholars have looked at this memorial, as well as other evidence of slaves in the Salt Lake Valley, as proof of racism and discrimination by a religion itself fleeing from persecution. Many people have seen the inscription to be a term of prejudice, however, by many accounts Green Flake was regarded as a prominent figure in Utah for being one of the first pioneers into the valley. The status of Green Flake in the West after the Civil War raises questions about how he was able to transcend the issue of race when the rest of the country was fighting to keep African Americans in the shadows.

The Brigham Young Memorial Association was created by the President of the LDS church, Wilford Woodruff, in 1891 to build a memorial to Brigham Young and the pioneers who settled in the Salt Lake Valley. According to an 1892 book created by The Mormon Church called the Contributor, “The desire to erect a monument in the memory of Brigham Young and the Pioneers has been in the hearts of the people of these valleys for many years.”[6] The association started devising a plan to have the monument built and paid for. From the beginning there was an idea to include a plaque on the monument that would include “the names of the Pioneers and the date of their entrance into the valley” to honor the “illustrious band.”[7] However the most important piece was getting an artist to sculpt a statue of Brigham Young so the plaques for the front and back were put on hold.

The association commissioned local artist Cyrus E. Dallin, who was not Mormon, to begin sculpting the monument which they had determined would be made of bronze. Dallin had recently been asked to sculpt the angel that sits atop LDS temples and was gaining an “enviable reputation as a sculptor” throughout the country.[8] A report by Captain Willard Young and J. H. Moyle about the design states, “The general idea…is to make not simply a statue of Brigham Young but rather a monument to the pioneers, with President Young as the central, or crowning figure.”[9] Dallin’s job was to create a monument that would honor all of the pioneers with Brigham Young as the center piece. His model, given to the association, shows that a statue of Brigham Young would adorn the top of the monument with a trapper and Native American flanking each side. A pioneer family would be carved into the bas-relief on the front of the monument. There was no discussion of the plaque for the rear of the monument in correspondence between the association and Dallin. His main concern was making sure that the monument that bore his name as artist was detailed properly as it would reflect on his reputation.

The Brigham Young Memorial Association did not discuss the creation of a plaque again until it was proposed in June 16, 1897. In the meeting E.A. Smith, the treasurer of the Brigham Young Memorial Association, suggests that “A copper plate be prepared with the names of the original band of pioneers of 143 men 3 women and 2 children engraven thereon to be placed in the base of the pioneer monument.”[10] The motion carried and Spencer Clawson, another member of the association, suggested that the names of the pioneers come from the banner created by Thomas Bullock and should be the model that the association should follow to place the names on the monument.[11] The Pioneer Banner lists all the members of the first party into the valley by name. Near the bottom of the banner is a bracket that carries the inscription colored servants and the titles of the three African Americans. Below these names are the names of the women and children of the company followed by the provisions.[12]

Thomas Bullock had been a member of the original band of pioneers when they arrived in the valley in 1847. According to a Deseret News article Thomas Bullock had been a clerk for Joseph Smith “and for many years a widely known and much esteemed citizen of this territory.”[13] This article goes on to detail the banner Bullock had created for the first pioneer celebration in 1849. It had been on display at the Pioneer Day celebration and “is a valuable and interesting historical record.”[14] This banner was the template used for creating the list of names and how they should be listed including the delineation of colored servants.

It was the desire of the Brigham Young Association to have all living members of the pioneer company of 1847 in attendance at the Pioneer Jubilee in 1897.[15] The association sent out letters inquiring about addresses for the living members of the pioneer group. A letter from an 1890 Deseret News article asks for biographical sketches of each member and then list the members that they do not have sketches for. Among the list of ninety-one are Green Flake, Hark Lay and Oscar Crosby without any reference to race.[16] The Association did not have a position towards African Americans or how they should be mentioned. The three African American men listed on the plaque were a different race however they were pioneers and incorporating their names on the monument suggests that the status of “pioneer” took precedence over ethnicity.

The discrimination of African Americans was not a new concept in the United States. The American South had been built on the backs of African American slaves. Southern plantation owners believed that slavery was the natural state of mankind and pointed to nature to demonstrate that all men were not created equal.[17] According to William Jenkins book Pro Slavery Thought in the Old South, the issue of slavery had been under great debate since the country had been founded.[18] Jenkins explains that in Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia he states, “negroes were by nature an inferior race of beings.”[19] The ideology of discriminating against African Americans had been ingrained in the minds of the American people by leaders of the country and Jenkins proves that point by showing Jefferson’s bias.

The anti-slavery thought in the North was due to the fact that Northerners did not depend on slaves for their livelihood. The abolitionist movement could take hold in an area that did not fully grasp the implications of freeing slaves. However the movement still did not take root as deeply as abolitionist would have liked. C. Eric Lincoln writes “The situation in New England was dishearteningly similar in effect to that prevailing in the South.”[20] Societies in the North showed signs of discrimination similar to that of the South and it originated with the acceptance that African Americans were inferior.[21] Although Lincoln’s argument is regarding New England it indicates a broader scope of intolerance outside the boundaries of the South. This philosophy explains why discrimination was prevalent across the country and not just the South.

Following the Civil War African Americans thought that they would gain equality with those who had discriminated against them. Ira Berlin states that relations between freed people and their masters became strained when African Americans began testing their new found freedom.[22] Berlin explains that the freed peoples’ actions were seen as “ingratitude and insolence.”[23] The separation between the two races shrank until the color of their skin was the only separation left.[24] Berlin’s claim that the new found freedom of African Americans in the South created a problematic situation between them and white residents provides an argument for why racism progressed. Creating equality for African Americans established a society where white citizens felt that they were being disrespected because they had to cohabitate with an inferior race.

For racism to persist there had to be a mechanism that allowed it.[25] Discrimination could not have existed without a culture that accepted racism as a social standard. Edward Blum suggests in his book Reforging the White Republic that books like The Cotton States, The Great South, and The Prostrate State “characterized the South as a place where black suffrage and civil rights were destroying public stability.”[26] The vehicle of racism allowed discrimination to exist and was the same vehicle that allowed the nation to reunite after the Civil War. Without racism the nation would not have been able to come together but this left many African Americans questioning when they would gain equality.

Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints were not above this intolerance. The LDS Church decided in 1847 that members of African descent could not hold the priesthood. The first instance of this comes from Parley P. Pratt who was an apostle of the church. In speaking to a group of saints about William McCary (a “black Indian” who pretended to be an ancient prophet) Parley P. Pratt stated, “[McCary] got the blood of Ham in him which linege [sic] was cursed as regards [to] the priesthood.”[27] In the fall of 1847 Brigham Young began alluding to the same idea that African Americans were a cursed people and were banned from holding the priesthood or entering LDS temples.[28]

The banning of African Americans from the temple and holding the priesthood was the start of racial intolerance from white members of the faith. However the groundwork had been laid by teachings within the Mormon faith which ultimately showed African Americans as an inferior race. Joseph Smith taught that people of African descent were cursed with the mark of Cain which was the black skin. Smith also referred to African Americans as “negroes…the sons of Cain.”[29] Mormon leaders began furthering these ideas after the death of Joseph Smith. Orson Hyde taught that some people had been predetermined to have black skin because they had not been valiant before coming to earth.[30] These teachings prolonged the racist attitudes of faithful Latter Day Saints toward their African counterparts.

Slavery also became an issue in the Mormon religion as more Southerners joined the faith and began joining the saints in Illinois and Missouri. These Southern members transported slaves with them which they regarded as property. The ideology of slavery in the church had been ambivalent with leaders on either side of the issue. Joseph Smith ran for president as an abolitionist candidate and believed that no man should own another. Brigham Young believed that slavery was ordained by god and that the church shouldn’t get involved in matters between a master and his slave.[31] The slavery issue in the LDS religion helped further the divide among African Americans and white members of the church.

Although there are instances of white members of the church treating African Americans with decency and respect, they are small instances with a larger problem of discrimination and intolerance towards the African race. However in one case African Americans were able to transcend the boundaries of race to find equality among members of the church. The instance in which this happens is similar to that of bringing two factions of America together after a civil war. By uniting saints under the banner of “pioneer” all members under that title become a unified body that rises above racism and inequality. One instance in which this is true is the story of Green flake.

Abraham Green was born in North Carolina in 1828 and customarily changed his name to Green Flake to show the ownership of his master James Flake.[32] James Flake joined the LDS church and Green followed a few weeks later. James and his family decided that they were going to join the other saints in Nauvoo and allowed all their slaves to go free.[33] Green opted to stay with the Flake family therefore retaining the status of a slave. The Salt Lake Tribune says that “He [Green Flake] joined the Mormons at Winter Quarters and came West with the first company to leave that camp.”[34] Green drove James Flake’s wagon to the Salt Lake Valley with instructions to build a home for the family, and shortly after the Flake family journeyed to the Great Basin.[35] In 1848 James headed to California in search of gold and was killed in a mule accident there. James Flake’s wife gave Green to Brigham Young, allegedly, for back payment of tithing.[36] Green worked for Brigham Young and the Church for two years before the church gave him his freedom.[37] Green married Martha Crosby, the sister of Oscar Crosby, and set up a house in Union just outside of Salt Lake City.

Green Flake was a slave when he made the trek to Utah and was treated as such. Sometime after arriving in Utah he was able to rise above the color of his skin to become a well known pioneer of 1847.[38] People in Utah began to become interested in the history during the years after the initial band of pioneers moved into the valley. A Deseret News article states, “The magnitude of the task performed by those who pioneered the way across the Great Plains to these mountain vales forty-seven years ago is being more generally recognized than in former years, and interest increases in the history of the individuals who composed that noble band.”[39] This interest in the “noble band” is how Green Flake was able to go beyond the boundary of racial discrimination and become one of the most notable pioneers of 1847.

A small article from the Deseret News in 1888 details the festivities of a Utah Pioneer Day Celebration. The article explains that speeches and songs were part of a program honoring the pioneers. The only speaker named in the article is Green Flake when it states, “Among the speakers was Mr. Green Flake one of [the] Pioneers who gave a short account of the travels of the Pioneers across the plains.”[40] Green Flake was able to recount his travels across the plains at this celebration, something that few other African Americans were doing in Utah or across the country at the time.

Green Flake is mentioned in a Deseret News article in 1894 after a pioneer celebration at which he gave a speech. The article gives this account of the celebration, “Pioneer Green Flake, 66 years old, the only survivor of the three colored men who were numbered among the Pioneers of 1847, gave a short speech, in which he said that he had always felt proud of the distinction of being one of the Pioneers of Utah.”[41] He also sat on the stand “seated in comfortable chairs” with President Wilford Woodruff and fourteen other prominent pioneers.[42] The article goes on to share a story related by Wilford Woodruff, president of the LDS Church, where he describes the pioneers going out to the Great Salt Lake to swim. “Green Flake, the colored man who had just spoke, was one of the party. After coming out of the briny waters his entire body being covered with salt, Mr. Flake was for once in his life a white man, and remained thus until by application of fresh water he regained his natural color.”[43] The Ogden Standard offers a small account of the celebration and mentioned that Green Flake spoke and referred to him as the only surviving member of the three slaves as well.[44]

In anticipation of the jubilee, the Salt Lake Tribune created a series called “Fifty Years Ago Today.” The daily series would detail the journey from Winter Quarters to the Great Basin each day. The May 31, 1897 edition of the series shows a hand drawn picture of Green Flake and offers an excerpt of his life story.

Green Flake is one of the original pioneers of Utah. He is a colored man, born in the state of Mississippi [sic], and is still alive, being a respected citizen of Gray’s Lake, Bingham County, Ida. The date of his birth is not recorded, but he is said to be over 75 years of age. He had been a slave all of his life, but joining the Mormon church, he became a valued man in the pioneer company travelling in the fourteenth ten. of which Joseph Matthews was captain.

Mr. Flake is very well known in Salt Lake, having been a resident of Union ward for years prior to his moving to Idaho.[45]

            Green Flake had become a well known pioneer before the Pioneer Jubilee of 1897. He had given multiple speeches and accounts of his journey across the plains with Brigham Young. One account is a story that he wrote in the Book of the Pioneers vol. 1 where he recalls the story of President Young negotiating with Native Americans for passage across their land.[46] In his account he also tells of a buffalo hunt that took place along the trek and how it was the first time that he had seen the animal.[47]

            Flake participated in all of the events surrounding the Pioneer Jubilee. He received a Jubilee pin that had his name engraved on it, as did all the pioneers. On July 26, 1897, the Salt Lake Tribune wrote a piece that gave details about seven visitors who attended the Jubilee. The very first one in the article is Flake and it states, “Among the most interesting of the pioneers was Green Flake.”[48]

            October 22, 1903, Green Flake passed away in Idaho Falls, Idaho. On October 22 the Deseret News placed his obituary on the front page with the title, “Green Flake Passes Away” in bold letters at the top of the page.[49] Flake had become more than a slave or colored servant, even more than an ordinary citizen, he had gained local recognition for being a pioneer of 1847. He had sat with the President of the LDS Church, he had given speeches about his travel to the Great Basin, and he had gained notoriety for being one of the African Americans who entered the Salt Lake Valley with the first band of pioneers.

            Green Flake was able to overcome the racial attitudes of the late nineteenth century because he was a pioneer. Not many African Americans can say that they enjoyed the prominence that Flake did after the Civil War. His name on the plaque only furthers his legend and provides another way to honor his legacy. It is not possible to see if Hark Lay and Oscar Crosby would have had the same reception due to their deaths prior to the increased interest in the pioneers. However, the Brigham Young Memorial Association included the two men in any and all records that they produced. They are also immortalized on the plaque memorializing their accomplishments. Without assuming that Hark Lay and Oscar Crosby would be treated the same, there is one case in which one African American was able to transcend racial discrimination and leave a lasting legacy. That legacy continues to persist on Cyrus Dallin’s pioneer monument with the delineation between free whites and colored servants.

Primary Sources

Brigham Young Memorial Association. "Book of the Pioneers Vol. 1 A-L." S.J. Quinney College of Law Library, University of Utah. 1847-1897. http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/uthisstat,5878 (accessed March 14, 2012).

Dallin, Cyrus E. "Pioneer Monument 1897" Monument. Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, 2012.

Editor of Historical Record, “The Pioneers,” Deseret News, April 2, 1890, accessed March 14, 2012, http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=oq9LAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gTADAAAAIBAJ&pg=4895,587378&dq=pioneer+jubilee&hl=en.

Flake, Green. "Green Flake to Brigham Young Memorial Association 1897" Correspondence. Salt Lake: Daughters of the Utah Pioneers, 2012.

International Society Daughters of Utah Pioneers, "Jubilee Program." Last modified 2011. Accessed March 14, 2012. http://www.dupinternational.org/jubilee/program.htm.

Utah Digital Newspaper, “Fifty Years Ago Today” Salt Lake Tribune, May 31, 1897, accessed March 19, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/slt17&CISOSHOW=15895&CISOPTR=15886.

Utah Digital Newspaper, “Green Flake Passes Away,” Deseret News, October 22, 1903, accessed March 16, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/den3&CISOPTR=22317.

Utah Digital Newspapers, "Jubilee Visitors" Salt Lake Tribune, July 26, 1897, accessed March 15, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/slt17&CISOSHOW=23530&CISOPTR=23482.

Utah Digital Newspapers, "The Memorial Association" Salt Lake Tribune July 21, 1897, Last modified 2011. Accessed March 14, 2012. http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/slt17&CISOPTR=31269.

Utah Digital Newspaper, “Salt Lake News” Ogden Standard, August 21, 1894, accessed March 19, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/ogden4&CISOSHOW=69333&CISOPTR=69322.

Utah Digital Newspaper, “Some Jubilee Visitors” Salt Lake Tribune, July 26, 1897, accessed March 19, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/slt17&CISOSHOW=23530&CISOPTR=23482.

Utah Digital Newspaper, “The Pioneers of 1847” Deseret News, August 25, 1894, accessed March 14, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/deseretnews6&CISOPTR=106958.

Utah Digital Newspaper, “The Pioneer Company: Names of its Members and a List of its Outfit,” Deseret News, August 1, 1888, accessed March 14, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/deseretnews4&CISOPTR=5338.

Utah Digital Newspaper “The Pioneer Jubilee,” Deseret News, March 24, 1897, accessed March 14, 2012, http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=oq9LAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gTADAAAAIBAJ&pg=4895,587378&dq=pioneer+jubilee&hl=en.

Utah digital Newspaper, “The Twenty-Fourth at Union” Deseret News, August 1, 1888, accessed March 19, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/deseretnews4&CISOSHOW=5369&CISOPTR=5338.

Utah Digital Newspaper, “The Utah Pioneers,” Deseret News, August 25, 1894, accessed March 16, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/deseretnews6&CISOPTR=106958.

Various, "Brigham Young Memorial Association Papers" Papers 1892-1900. Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints History Library, 2012.

Weggland, Dan. "Pioneer Banner 1849" Textile. Salt Lake City: Daughters of Utah Pioneers Museum, 2012.

Wells, Junius F. The Contributor: Representing the Young Mens Mutual Improvement Associations of the Latter Day Saints, Salt Lake City: The Contributor Company, 1892.

Bibliography

Berlin, Ira. Generations of Capitvity: A History of African-American Slaves. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003.

Blum, Edward J. Reforging the White Republic: Race, Religion, and American Nationalism 1865-1898. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005.

Bringhurst, Newell G. and Smith, Darron T. Black and Mormon. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2004.

Bringhurst, Newell G. Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People Within Mormonism. Westport, Connecticut : Greenwood Press, 1981.

Bringhurst, Newell G. "The Mormons and Slavery: A Closer Look." Pacific Historical Review, 1981: 329-338.

Carter, Catherine B. The Story of the Negro Pioneer. Salt Lake City: Daughters of Utah Pioneers, 1965.

Christensen, James B. "Negro Slavery in the Utah Territory." The Phylon Quarterly, 1957: 298-305.

Hunter, J. Michael. "The Monument to Brigham Young and the Pioneers: One Hundred Years of Controversy." Utah Historical Quarterly, 2000: 332-343.

Jenkins, William Sumner Ph.D. Pro-Slavery Thought in the Old South. Gloucester, Massachusetts: The University of North Carolina Press, 1960.

Lincoln, C. Eric. Race, Religion, and the Continuing American Dilemma. New York: Hill and Wang, 1984.

Lythgoe, Dennis L. "Negro Slavery in Utah." Utah Historical Quarterly, 1971: 40-54.

McCarthy, Timothy Patrick and Stauffer, John. Prophets of Protest: Reconsidering the History of American Abolitionism. New York: The New Press, 2006.

McKitrick, Eric L. Slavery Defended: The Views of The Old South. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1963.

Percoco, James A. "Monumental History: Commemorating America's Civil War Sesquicentennial." OAH magazine of History, 2011: 58-61.

Seldin, Charles. "Controversial Listing on Plaque: Black Utah Pioneer Lives in Memory." Salt Lake Tribune, April 14, 1975: 18.

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---

[1] International Society Daughters of Utah Pioneers, "Jubilee Program." Last modified 2011. Accessed March 14, 2012. http://www.dupinternational.org/jubilee/program.htm.

[2] Utah Digital Newspapers, "Salt Lake Tribune 1897-7-21." Last modified 2011. Accessed March 14, 2012. http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/slt17&CISOPTR=31269.

[3] Cyrus E. Dallin, “Monument.” Brigham Young Monument. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints), 2012.

[4] Dallin, “Brigham Young Monument.” 2012.

[5] Dallin, “Brigham Young Monument.” 2012.

[6] Junius F. Wells, The Contributor: Representing the Young Mens Mutual Improvement Associations of the Latter Day Saints (Salt Lake City: The Contributor Company, 1892), 337.

[7] Wells, The Contributor, 337.

[8] Wells, The Contributor, 337.

[9] Quoted in Junius F. Wells, The Contributor: Representing the Young Mens Mutual Improvement Associations of the Latter Day Saints (Salt Lake City: The Contributor Company, 1892), 337.

[10] Brigham Young Memorial Association, “Meeting Minutes.” Brigham Young Memorial Association Papers. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints), 2012.

[11] Association, “Meeting Minutes,” 2012.

[12] Dan Weggland, “Pioneer Banner.” The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints), 2012.

[13] Utah Digital Newspaper, “The Pioneer Company: Names of its Members and a List of its Outfit,” The Deseret News, August 1, 1888, accessed March 14, 2012,

[14] Utah Digital Newspaper “The Pioneer Company,” 2012.

[15] Utah Digital Newspaper “The Pioneer Company,” 2012.

[16] Editor of Historical Record, “The Pioneers,” The Deseret News, April 2, 1890, accessed March 14, 2012, http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=oq9LAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gTADAAAAIBAJ&pg=4895,587378&dq=pioneer+jubilee&hl=en.

[17] William Sumner Jenkins, Pro-Slavery Thought in the Old South (Gloucester: The University of North Carolina Press, 1960), 60.

[18] Jenkins, Pro-Slavery Thought in the South, 49.

[19] Quoted in William Sumner Jenkins, Pro-Slavery Thought in the Old South (Gloucester: The University of North Carolina Press, 1960), 52.

[20] C. Eric Lincoln, Race, Religion, and the Continuing American Dilemma (New York: Hill and Wang, 1984), 39.

[21] Jenkins, Pro-Slavery Thought in the South, 243.

[22] Ira Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African American Slaves (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003), 263.

[23] Berlin, Generations of Captivity, 263.

[24] Berlin, Generations of Captivity, 263.

[25] Lincoln, Race, Religion, and the Continuing American Dilemma, 11.

[26] Edward J. Blum, Reforging the White Republic: Race, Religion, and American nationalism, 1865-1898 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005), 126.

[27] Quoted in Newell G. Bringhurst, Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People Within Mormonism (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1981), 86.

[28] Newell g. Bringhurst, Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People Within Mormonism (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1981), 86.

[29] Bringhurst, Saints, Slaves, and Blacks, 86.

[30] Bringhurst, Saints, Slaves, and Blacks, 87.

[31] Dennis L. Lythgoe, “Negro Slavery in Utah,” Utah Historical Quarterly 39, no 1 (1971): 50.

[32] Charles Seldin, “Controversial Listing on Plaque: Black Utah Pioneer Lives in Memory,” Salt Lake Tribune, April 14, 1975.

[33] Katherine B. Carter, The Story of the Negro Pioneer (Salt Lake City: Utah Printing, 1965), 4.

[34] Utah Digital Newspaper, “Jubilee Visitors,” Salt Lake Tribune, July 26, 1897, accessed March 15, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/slt17&CISOSHOW=23530&CISOPTR=23482.

[35] Carter, The Story of the Negro Pioneer, 5.

[36] Pat Bagley, “Living History: Slaves Arrived in Utah with Brigham Young,” Salt Lake Tribune, February 19, 2010, accessed March 15, 2012, http://www.sltrib.com/ci_14437472.

[37] Bagley, “Living History,” Salt Lake Tribune, February 19, 2012, accessed March 15, 2012, http://www.sltrib.com/ci_14437472.

[38] Utah Digital Newspaper, “Green Flake Passes Away,” Deseret News, October 22, 1903, accessed March 16, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/den3&CISOPTR=22317.

[39] Utah Digital Newspaper, “The Utah Pioneers,” Deseret News, August 25, 1894, accessed March 16, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/deseretnews6&CISOPTR=106958.

[40] Utah digital Newspaper, “The Twenty-Fourth at Union” Deseret News, August 1, 1888, accessed March 19, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/deseretnews4&CISOSHOW=5369&CISOPTR=5338.

[41] Utah Digital Newspaper, “The Pioneers of 1847” Deseret News, August 25, 1894, accessed March 14, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/deseretnews6&CISOPTR=106958.

[42] Utah Digital Newspaper, “The Pioneers of 1847,” 2012.

[43] Utah Digital Newspaper, “The Pioneers of 1847,” 2012.

[44] Utah Digital Newspaper, “Salt Lake News” Ogden Standard, August 21, 1894, accessed March 19, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/ogden4&CISOSHOW=69333&CISOPTR=69322.

[45] Utah Digital Newspaper, “Fifty Years Ago Today” Salt Lake Tribune, May 31, 1897, accessed March 19, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/slt17&CISOSHOW=15895&CISOPTR=15886.

[46] J. Willard Marriott Library, University of Utah, Book of the Pioneers vol. 1 A-L p. 242 Utah State Archives and Records Service, accessed March 19, 2012, http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/uthisstat&CISOPTR=6299.

[47] J. Willard Marriott Library, Book of the Pioneers vol. 1 A-L, p. 242.

[48] Utah Digital Newspaper, “Some Jubilee Visitors” Salt Lake Tribune, July 26, 1897, accessed March 19, 2012, http://udn.lib.utah.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/slt17&CISOSHOW=23530&CISOPTR=23482.

[49] Utah Digital Newspaper, “Green Flake Passes Away” Deseret News, October 22, 1903.